Frequently Asked Questions

In June 2024 our project was picked up and misrepresented by The Telegraph, the Daily Mail and other media outlets. Here are some of the questions that were raised about the project.

    1. Women Deliver the Milk in Wartime, Leeds, England, C 1942

      Mrs Ada Stone smiles for the camera whilst on her milk round, somewhere in Leeds, c 1942.

      Credit: Imperial War Museums

    2. Ingelsbo cow at the stream

      Credit: Johanna Zetterström-Sharp

    3. Kenya children drinking milk

      Credit: ILRI/Dave Elsworth

Where does the money for the project come from and how long will it run?

This project is funded by the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Council through one of their Curiosity Grants. It will run from July 2024 to March 2026.

Is the project about milk and racism?

We want to understand how Northern European cultural and historical relationships with milk have influenced global dairy guidance, policies and regulations, especially in Kenya and the UK. 

There are many historical connections between the dairy industries in the UK and Kenya, with colonialism being a major one. Many British settlers in Kenya set up dairy farms, and colonial era dairy regulation in Kenya was concerned that existing indigenous knowledge relating to dairying did not meet expectations regarding for example volume, or how to relate to your dairy animals. At the time, there was a lot of racism in Kenya, including through colonial policies of racial segregation. This means that although it is not the focus of our research, racism is something we are likely to find in the archives; it is part of our shared history. 

Why have you chosen to research colonial histories relating to milk?

European colonialism has had a significant impact on the world, and this impact continues to shape life today in complex ways. We believe that history plays a vital role in helping us understand where we are today, not only in relation to the past but how that past impacts on and shapes the present. 

The milk industry has been shown to have a deep and significant impact on the world, including its impact on climate. Its development into a global industry, including global regulation and the movement of milk products across the world, took hold in the 1940s and 50s, at a time when much of the world was still under colonial rule. Researchers like Godfrey Hove and John Knotts have looked at some of assumptions that influenced colonial policies relating to milk on the African continent. For example, restrictions on who was allowed to own cattle, and encouraging mothers to give their babies powdered milk over breast milk. We are interested in the colonial relationships with milk in Kenya, but also how the scientific research into dairy undertaken at the time has impacted dairy heritage in the UK.

What about milk drinking before colonisation in Kenya?

Archaeological research led by scholars such as Emmanuel Ndiema and Sarah Tishkoff has significantly deepened our understanding of milk consumption in Kenya and broader East Africa, extending back thousands of years. Studies indicate that the practice of dairying in East Africa began at least 6,000 years ago, long before the genetic adaptation for lactase persistence (the ability to digest milk into adulthood) became widespread among these populations.

Researchers have identified milk proteins in dental calculus from ancient individuals in Kenya, dating back to between 3,600 and 3,200 years ago. This evidence suggests that milk was a crucial dietary component for early pastoralist communities, who likely relied on various milk-producing animals, including cattle, goats, and sheep. Notably, these early milk drinkers did not possess the lactase persistence mutation, implying that they may have processed milk into fermented products, such as yoghurt, which are easier to digest.

The work of Ndiema and his collaborators highlights the resilience and adaptability of these pastoralist societies. By integrating archaeological findings with genetic research, this work shows that the cultural practice of dairying may have driven the evolution of lactase persistence in African populations, illustrating a complex interplay between culture and genetics over millennia​

How does this project relate to my memories of milk growing up in the UK?

The ubiquitous presence of milk in the UK, often seen as a staple of health and nutrition, is a product of historical processes, such as industrialisation, that have global implications. The project’s examination of milk as both an everyday substance and a politically charged product highlights how personal experiences with milk are connected to larger, often unseen, historical forces that have influenced dairy production and consumption patterns over time. The project is keen to understand how milk consumption is not just as a personal or cultural habit, but also something deeply embedded in a broader socio-political and historical context.

The rhyme "Thatcher, Thatcher, milk snatcher," which many remember from their childhoods, captures the deeply political nature of milk as more than just a dietary staple. Margaret Thatcher’s 1971 decision to end free milk for primary school pupils became a flashpoint for public outrage, symbolising a broader clash over social welfare and government austerity measures. Milk, typically associated with nourishment and care, was transformed into a potent symbol of government overreach and the perceived erosion of public services. This childhood chant reflects how milk, often seen as an innocuous part of daily life, can also serve as a battleground for political and social ideologies, highlighting its role in larger debates about state responsibility and public health.

Is the project suggesting that we should not drink milk?

The project is not suggesting that people should stop drinking milk. Instead, it aims to explore and critically examine the historical, cultural, and political dimensions of milk consumption, particularly how colonialism and industrialisation have shaped global dairy systems and our everyday relationship with milk. By investigating these aspects, the project encourages a deeper understanding of how milk production and consumption have been influenced by past policies and practices. The goal is to prompt reflection on the broader socio-political implications of milk, rather than to advocate for or against drinking it. The project is more about raising awareness and understanding the complex histories and power dynamics associated with milk, rather than making dietary recommendations.

What about cheese?

The project will engage with dairy products which includes cheese.

How does this project relate to lactose intolerance?

This project is closely related to the topic of lactose intolerance as it aims to challenge some common myths and assumptions about this condition by drawing on archaeological and genetic research. Lactose intolerance, the inability to fully digest lactose, is often perceived as an anomaly or deficiency. However, this project seeks to understand recent research that suggests the ability to digest lactose into adulthood—known as lactase persistence—is actually a relatively recent genetic adaptation that arose in certain populations due to the cultural practice of dairying.

The project will explore how different communities around the world have historically managed to incorporate milk into their diets, despite the challenges of lactose intolerance. For example, archaeological evidence suggests that early milk-drinking societies in Africa and Europe developed methods such as fermenting milk into yoghurt or cheese to reduce its lactose content, making it easier to digest. The project also aims to understand why milk drinking has remained popular across various cultures, even when it posed digestive and hygienic challenges.

By unpicking these myths, the project hopes to foster a more nuanced understanding of lactose intolerance, not as a defect, but as part of the diverse ways humans have adapted to their environments and dietary practices over time. It underscores that milk drinking is not merely a biological issue but one deeply intertwined with cultural evolution, historical processes, and socio-political contexts​.

What about plant-based milk?

The project is interested in the historical and cultural significance of milk, which naturally extends to the discussion of plant-based milks as alternatives to dairy. Plant-based milks, such as those made from almonds, soy, oats, or rice, have become increasingly popular in recent years, often due to concerns about lactose intolerance, dairy allergies, ethical considerations, and environmental sustainability.

While the project primarily focuses on the legacies of dairy milk, it acknowledges the rise of plant-based milks as part of a broader conversation about milk consumption. This includes understanding how cultural and historical factors influence dietary choices and how communities have adapted to or resisted different forms of milk over time. The project might explore how plant-based milks fit into this narrative, considering them within the context of global dietary trends, the environmental impact of dairy farming, and the ways in which cultural practices around milk are evolving.

By examining the shift towards plant-based milks, the project can provide insights into how contemporary concerns, such as sustainability and health, are reshaping the traditional practices of milk consumption that have been influenced by centuries of colonial and industrial history. This reflection could lead to a broader understanding of how food choices, whether dairy or plant-based, are deeply connected to cultural identities, historical processes, and socio-political contexts​

Are you looking at other kinds of animal milk?

Yes, the project is indeed looking at other kinds of animal milk, with a particular focus on camel milk. Camel milk  is currently undergoing processes of industrialization, making it an intriguing comparison to cow's milk. Unlike cow's milk, which has been highly industrialised for decades, camel milk is now being produced on a larger scale, especially in arid regions where camels are better suited than cows. This industrialization includes the development of camel dairy farms and the processing of camel milk into various products such as cheese, yoghurt, and even powdered milk for international markets.

This comparison is particularly relevant because camel milk has historically been produced in more traditional, low-input systems. However, with increasing global demand and recognition of its nutritional benefits—such as higher levels of certain vitamins and minerals compared to cow's milk—there is a growing movement to scale up its production. By examining how camel milk is being industrialised, the project can offer insights into the broader impacts of dairy industrialization and how different cultural, environmental, and economic factors shape the production and consumption of various types of milk​.

Fulani cattle milk